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| - | ====== 1. Grundlagen und Grundbegriffe | + | ====== |
| + | ===== DC circuit theory ===== | ||
| + | ==== Linear and non-linear resistors | ||
| - | ===== 1.1 Physikalische Größen ===== | + | ^ Name ^ <wrap onlyprint> |
| + | ^ Student ID number ^ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| - | < | + | === Equipment used === |
| - | === Ziele === | + | |
| - | Nach dieser Lektion sollten Sie: | + | * Bench power supply GPS 3303 |
| + | * Digital multimeter Agilent U1241A | ||
| + | * Breadboard GL-36 | ||
| + | * Decade resistance box RD-1000, $\pm 1 \%$ | ||
| - | - die physikalischen Basisgrößen und die dazugehörigen SI-Einheiten kennen. | + | The aim of this experiment is to become familiar with and investigate the following: |
| - | - die die wichtigsten Präfixe kennen. Sie können der jeweiligen Abkürzung eine Zehnerpotenz zuordnen (G, M, k, d, c, m, µ, n). | + | |
| - | - in eine vorhandene Größengleichung gegebene Zahlenwerte und Einheiten einsetzen können. Daraus sollten Sie mit einem Taschenrechner das richtige Ergebnis berechnen können. | + | |
| - | - die griechischen Buchstaben zuordnen können. | + | |
| - | - immer mit Zahlenwert und Einheit rechnen. | + | |
| - | - wissen, dass eine bezogene Größengleichung dimensionslos ist! | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | < | + | * assembling simple circuits on the GL-36 breadboard |
| - | Der KIT-Brückenkurs bietet eine ähnliche Einführung zu [[https:// | + | * carrying out measurements with the Agilent U1241A digital multimeter |
| - | </ | + | * using resistor standard series and the associated colour codes |
| + | * measuring resistances, | ||
| - | ==== Basisgrößen | + | ==== General measurement techniques |
| - | < | + | |
| - | Kurzpräsentation der SI-Einheiten | + | |
| - | {{youtube> | + | |
| - | < | + | === Voltage measurement === |
| - | ^ Basisgröße | + | Procedure for voltage measurement: |
| - | | Zeit | Sekunde | + | |
| - | | Länge | + | |
| - | | Stromstärke | + | |
| - | | Masse | Kilogramm | + | |
| - | | Temperatur | + | |
| - | | Stoffmenge | + | |
| - | | Lichtstärke | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | * Für die praktische Anwendung von physikalischen Naturgesetzen werden **physikalische Größen** in mathematische Beziehungen gesetzt. | + | |
| - | * Es gibt Basisgrößen auf Basis des SI-Einheitensystems (frz. für Système International d' | + | |
| - | * Um die Basisgrößen quantitativ (quantum = lat. "wie groß" | + | |
| - | * In der Elektrotechnik sind die ersten drei Basisgrößen (vgl. <tabref tab01>) besonders wichtig. \\ die Masse ist für die Darstellung von Energie und Leistung wichtig. | + | |
| - | * Jede physikalische Größe wird durch ein Produkt aus **Zahlenwert** und **Einheit** angegeben: \\ z.B. $I = 2 A$ | + | |
| - | * Dies ist die Kurzform von $I = 2\cdot 1A$ | + | |
| - | * $I$ ist die physikalische Größe, hier: elektrische Stromstärke | + | |
| - | * $\{I\} = 2 $ ist der Zahlenwert | + | |
| - | * $ [I] = 1 A$ ist die (Maß-)Einheit, | + | |
| - | ~~PAGEBREAK~~ ~~CLEARFIX~~ | + | - Set the meter to the largest voltage range (check whether direct voltage or alternating voltage is to be measured; not necessary in auto range). |
| - | ==== abgeleitete Größen, SI-Einheiten und Präfixe ==== | + | - Connect the test leads to the correct meter sockets (the sockets marked COM and V). |
| + | - Connect the test leads to the component under test with the correct polarity, so that the meter is connected in parallel with the component. | ||
| + | | ||
| - | < | + | === Current measurement === |
| - | <WRAP >< | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | ^ Präfix ^ Präfixzeichen ^ Bedeutung ^ | + | |
| - | | Yotta | Y | $10^{24}$ | + | |
| - | | Zetta | Z | $10^{21}$ | + | |
| - | | Exa | E | $10^{18}$ | + | |
| - | | Peta | P | $10^{15}$ | + | |
| - | | Tera | T | $10^{12}$ | + | |
| - | | Giga | G | $10^{9}$ | + | |
| - | | Mega | M | $10^{6}$ | + | |
| - | | Kilo | k | $10^{3}$ | + | |
| - | | Hekto | h | $10^{2}$ | + | |
| - | | Deka | de | $10^{1}$ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | ^ Präfix ^ Präfixzeichen ^ Bedeutung ^ | + | |
| - | | Dezi | d | $10^{-1}$ | + | |
| - | | Zenti | c | $10^{-2}$ | + | |
| - | | Milli | m | $10^{-3}$ | + | |
| - | | Mikro | u, $\mu$ | $10^{-6}$ | + | |
| - | | Nano | n | $10^{-9}$ | + | |
| - | | Piko | p | $10^{-12}$ | + | |
| - | | Femto | f | $10^{-15}$ | + | |
| - | | Atto | a | $10^{-18}$ | + | |
| - | | Zeppto | z | $10^{-21}$ | + | |
| - | | Yokto | y | $10^{-24}$ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | * Neben den Basisgrößen gibt es auch davon abgeleitete Größen, z.B. $1{{m}\over{s}}$ | + | |
| - | * Bei Berechnungen sollten SI-Einheiten bevorzugt werden. Diese sind **ohne Zahlenfaktor** aus den Basisgrößen ableitbar. | + | |
| - | * Die Druckeinheit Bar ($bar$) ist eine SI-Einheit | + | |
| - | * ABER: Die veraltete Druckeinheit atmosphäre ($=1,013 bar$) ist **__keine__** SI-Einheit | + | |
| - | * Um den Zahlenwert nicht zu groß oder zu klein werden zu lassen, ist es möglich einen dezimalen Faktor durch einen Präfix (Vorsatz) zu ersetzen. Diese sind in der <tabref tab02> aufgelistet. | + | |
| + | Procedure for current measurement: | ||
| - | Beispiel zur Potenzrechnung | + | - Set the meter to the largest current range (check whether direct current or alternating current is to be measured; not necessary in auto range). |
| + | - Connect the test leads to the correct meter sockets (the sockets marked COM and $\mu{\rm A}.{\rm mA}$). | ||
| + | - Connect the test leads to the component under test with the correct polarity, so that the meter is connected in series with the component. | ||
| + | - Read the measured value. | ||
| - | {{youtube> | + | === Resistance measurement === |
| - | ~~PAGEBREAK~~ ~~CLEARFIX~~ | + | Procedure for resistance measurement: |
| - | ==== physikalische Gleichungen ==== | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | * Größengleichungen | + | - Read the measured value. |
| - | * normierte Größengleichungen | + | |
| - | <WRAP >< | + | === Digital multimeter Agilent U1241A === |
| - | <callout color=" | + | |
| - | === Größengleichungen === | + | The Agilent U1241A multimeter has automatic range selection. The following measuring ranges are available: |
| - | Bei der überwiegenden Mehrheit der physikalische Gleichungen ergibt sich eine physikalische Einheit, welche ungleich $1$ ist. | + | |
| - | \\ \\ | + | |
| - | Beispiel: Kraft $F = m \cdot a$ mit $[F] = kg \cdot {{m}\over{s^2}}$ | + | ^ Function ^ Range ^ Accuracy ^ |
| - | \\ \\ | + | | DC voltage | $0 \ldots 1000 ~{\rm V}$ | $\pm 0.1 \%$ | |
| + | | AC voltage | $0 \ldots 1000 ~{\rm V}$ | $\pm 1 \%$ | | ||
| + | | DC current | $0 \ldots 10 ~{\rm A}$ | $\pm 0.2 \%$ | | ||
| + | | AC current | $0 \ldots 10 ~{\rm A}$ | $\pm 1 \%$ | | ||
| + | | Resistance | $0 \ldots 100 ~{\rm M}\Omega$ | $\pm 0.3 \%$ | | ||
| + | | Capacitance | $0 \ldots 10 ~{\rm mF}$ | $\pm 1.2 \%$ | | ||
| + | | Frequency | $30 ~{\rm Hz} \ldots 100 ~{\rm kHz}$ | $\pm 0.3 \%$ | | ||
| - | * Bei Größengleichungen sollte **immer** eine Einheitenkontrolle durchgeführt werden | + | === Physical quantities and units used === |
| - | * Größengleichungen sollten allgemein bevorzugt werden | + | |
| - | </ | + | ^ Quantity ^ Symbol ^ Unit ^ Unit symbol ^ |
| - | </ | + | | Voltage, potential difference | $U$ | volt $= {\rm W}\cdot{\rm A}^{-1} = {\rm kg}\cdot{\rm m}^2\cdot{\rm s}^{-3}\cdot{\rm A}^{-1}$ | ${\rm V}$ | |
| - | <callout color=" | + | | Current | $I$ | ampere (base unit) | ${\rm A}$ | |
| - | === normierte Größengleichungen === | + | | Resistance | $R$ | ohm $= {\rm V}\cdot{\rm A}^{-1} |
| - | Bei normierten Größengleichungen wird der Messwert oder Rechenwert einer Größengleichung durch einen Bezugswert dividiert. | + | Conventional current direction: current flows from positive to negative. |
| - | Es entsteht so eine dimensionslose Größe relativ zum Bezugswert. | + | |
| - | Beispiel: Wirkungsgrad $\eta = {{P_{ab}}\over{P_{zu}}}$ | + | ==== Direct resistance measurement ==== |
| - | Als Bezugswert werden häufig: | + | Determine the nominal value and the measured value of the resistance of $R_1$ (brown, green, orange), $R_2$ (yellow, violet, red), $R_3$ (red, violet, red) and the incandescent lamp $R_{\rm L}$. Also measure the approximate resistance $R_{\rm K}$ of your body from your right hand to your left hand. |
| - | * Nennwerte | + | |
| - | * Maximalwerte | + | |
| - | genutzt. | + | |
| - | * Bei normierten Größengleichungen sollten sich die Einheiten **immer** auslöschen | + | ^ ^ $R_1$ ^ $R_2$ ^ $R_3$ ^ $R_{\rm L}$ ^ $R_{\rm K}$ ^ |
| + | | Nominal value | | | | | | | ||
| + | | Measured value | | | | | | | ||
| - | </ | + | How do you explain the deviation between $R_{\rm L,nom}$ and $R_{\rm L,meas}$? |
| - | </WRAP></WRAP> | + | <wrap onlyprint> \\ \\ \\ \\ </wrap> |
| - | <callout title=" | + | What consequences can $R_{\rm K}$ have? |
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| - | Gegeben sei ein Körper mit der Masse $m = 100kg$. Der Körper wird um den Weg $s=2m$ angehoben. \\ | + | Now also determine the series and parallel combinations of resistors |
| - | Welche Arbeit wird dabei verrichtet? | + | |
| - | \\ \\ | + | |
| - | physikalische Gleichung: | + | |
| - | <WRAP indent>< | + | |
| - | Arbeit = Kraft $\cdot$ Weg | + | |
| - | \\ $W = F \cdot s \quad\quad\quad\; | + | |
| - | \\ $W = m \cdot g \cdot s \quad\quad$ mit $m=100kg$, $s=2m$ und $g=9, | + | |
| - | \\ $W = 100kg \cdot 9, | + | |
| - | \\ $W = 100\cdot 9,81 \cdot 2 \;\; \cdot \;\; kg \cdot {{m}\over{s^2}} \cdot m$ | + | |
| - | \\ $W = 1962 \quad\quad \cdot \quad\quad\; | + | |
| - | \\ $W = 1962 Nm = 1962 J $ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | $R_{\rm series} = R_{\rm a} + R_{\rm b}$ |
| - | ==== Buchstaben für physikalische Größen ==== | + | $R_{\rm parallel} = (R_{\rm a} \parallel R_{\rm b}) = \frac{R_{\rm a} \cdot R_{\rm b}}{R_{\rm a} + R_{\rm b}}$ |
| - | + | ||
| - | < | + | |
| - | <WRAP >< | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | ^ Groß-\\ buchstaben ^ Klein-\\ buchstaben^ Name ^ | + | |
| - | | $A$ | $\alpha$ | + | |
| - | | $B$ | $\beta$ | Beta | | + | |
| - | | $\Gamma$ | + | |
| - | | $\Delta$ | + | |
| - | | $E$ | $\epsilon$, $\varepsilon$ | + | |
| - | | $Z$ | $\zeta$ | + | |
| - | | $H$ | $\eta$ | + | |
| - | | $\Theta$ | + | |
| - | | $I$ | $\iota$ | + | |
| - | | $K$ | $\kappa$ | + | |
| - | | $\Lambda$ | + | |
| - | | $M$ | $\mu$ | My | | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | < | + | |
| - | ^ Groß-\\ buchstaben ^ Klein-\\ buchstaben^ Name ^ | + | |
| - | | $N$ | $\nu$ | Ny | | + | |
| - | | $\Xi$ | $\xi$ | Xi | | + | |
| - | | $O$ | $\omicron$ | + | |
| - | | $\Pi$ | $\pi$ | Pi | | + | |
| - | | $R$ | $\rho$, $\varrho$ | + | |
| - | | $\Sigma$ | + | |
| - | | $T$ | $\tau$ | + | |
| - | | $\Upsilon$ | + | |
| - | | $\Phi$ | + | |
| - | | $X$ | $\chi$ | + | |
| - | | $\Psi$ | + | |
| - | | $\Omega$ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | {{youtube> | + | |
| - | </ | + | ^ ^ $R_1 + R_2$ ^ $R_1 + R_3$ ^ $R_2 + R_3$ ^ $R_1 \parallel R_2$ ^ $R_1 \parallel R_3$ ^ $R_2 \parallel R_3$ ^ |
| + | | Calculated | | | | | | | | ||
| + | | Measured | | | | | | | | ||
| - | In der Physik und Elektrotechnik wurde häufig versucht für physikalische Größen dem (englischen) Begriff naheliegende Buchstaben zu finden. \\ | + | ==== Indirect resistance measurement ==== |
| - | So sind $C$ für // | + | |
| - | Hierbei ist aber bereits schon zu sehen, dass das $C$ sowohl für die thermische Kapazität, als auch die elektrische Kapazität genutzt. | + | |
| - | Das lateinische Alphabet hat für den Umfang der Physik nicht genug Buchstaben, um Konflikte zu vermeiden. | + | Resistance can also be determined by a current/ |
| - | Bei verschiedenen physikalischen Größen wird deswegen auf griechischen Buchstaben zurückgegriffen (siehe <tabref tab03>). | + | |
| - | Besonders in Elektrotechnik wird durch Groß-/ | + | **Ohm's law:** In a circuit, the current increases with increasing voltage and decreases with increasing resistance. |
| - | | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | Die relevanten griechischen Buchstaben für die Elektrotechnik werden in folgendem Video beschrieben. | + | \\ |
| + | $ I = \frac{U}{R} $ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | Build the measurement circuit shown in Figure 2 for each of the three resistors and set the voltage on the bench power supply to $12 ~{\rm V}$. | ||
| - | ~~PAGEBREAK~~ ~~CLEARFIX~~ | + | {{drawio> |
| - | ==== Übungen ==== | + | |
| - | <panel type=" | + | Measure $U_n$ and $I_n$. From these values calculate $R_n$ in each case. |
| - | {{youtube> | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <panel type=" | + | ^ $I_1 / {\rm mA}$ ^ $U_1 / {\rm V}$ ^ $R_1 / {\rm k}\Omega$ ^ $I_2 / {\rm mA}$ ^ $U_2 / {\rm V}$ ^ $R_2 / {\rm k}\Omega$ ^ $I_3 / {\rm mA}$ ^ $U_3 / {\rm V}$ ^ $R_3 / {\rm k}\Omega$ ^ |
| - | Rechnen Sie Schritt für Schritt folgende Werte um: | + | | | | | | | | | | | |
| - | - Eine Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit von 80 km/h in m/s | + | |
| - | - Eine Energie von 60 Joule in kWh (1 Joule = 1 Watt*Sekunde) | + | |
| - | - Die Anzahl elektrolytisch abgeschiedener, | + | |
| - | | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <panel type=" | + | ==== Kirchhoff' |
| - | Rechnen Sie Schritt für Schritt folgende Werte um: | + | |
| - | Wie viele Minuten könnte eine ideale Batterie mit 10 kWh einen Verbraucher mit 3W betreiben? | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| - | <panel type=" | + | In every closed circuit and in every supply loop, the sum of all voltages is zero. |
| - | Rechnen Sie Schritt für Schritt folgende Werte um: | + | |
| - | Wie viel Energie verbraucht ein durchschnittlicher Haushalt am Tag, wenn er eine mittlere Leistung von 500 W aufnimmt? Wie viele Schokoriegel (je 2000 kJ) entspricht das? | + | |
| - | </ | + | |
| + | Set the voltage on the bench power supply to $12 ~{\rm V}$ and measure this voltage accurately with a multimeter. Build the measurement circuit shown in Figure 3. | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Complete the voltage arrows and measure $U$, $U_1$ and $U_2$. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ^ $U$ ^ $U_1$ ^ $U_2$ ^ | ||
| + | | | | | | ||
| + | |||
| + | What is the loop equation here? | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Verify the formula using the measured values: | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | The resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$ connected in series form a voltage divider. In what ratio are the voltages $U_1$ and $U_2$? | ||
| + | |||
| + | $U_1 / U_2 =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Kirchhoff' | ||
| + | |||
| + | At every branch point, the sum of all currents flowing into and out of the node is zero. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Set the voltage on the bench power supply to $12 ~{\rm V}$ and measure the voltage accurately with a multimeter. As a first step, build the measurement circuit shown in Figure 4. | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Draw the arrows for the directions of currents $I_1$ and $I_2$ in Figure 4. On both multimeters the DC current range and the polarity must be set before switching on. Then measure currents $I_1$ and $I_2$ and enter the measured values in Table 5. | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | In what ratio are currents $I_1$ and $I_2$? | ||
| + | |||
| + | $I_1 / I_2 =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Switch the bench power supply on again and measure the current $I$. Enter its value in Table 5. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ^ $I$ ^ $I_1$ ^ $I_2$ ^ | ||
| + | | | | | | ||
| + | |||
| + | Determine the node equation for node $K$ and verify its validity. | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Using the measured values of resistors $R_1$, $R_2$ and $R_3$, calculate the total resistance $R_{\rm KP}$. | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Using the calculated value of $R_{\rm KP}$, verify the measured value of the total current: | ||
| + | |||
| + | $I = \frac{U}{R_{\rm KP}} =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Voltage divider as a voltage source (a) ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | The voltage divider shown in Figure 6 is initially in the unloaded condition, because the entire current supplied by the bench power supply flows through the series-connected resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$. A resistor connected in parallel with $R_2$ loads the voltage divider. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Set the voltage on the bench power supply to $12 ~{\rm V}$ and measure the exact voltage with a multimeter. Build the measurement circuit shown in Figure 6. | ||
| + | |||
| + | For the connected load $R_{\rm L} = 10 ~{\rm k}\Omega$, the voltage divider represents a voltage source. Like any voltage source, it has a source voltage (open-circuit voltage) $U_0$ and an internal resistance $R_{\rm i}$. The internal resistance of the voltage divider, regarded as a voltage source, results from the parallel connection of divider resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$: | ||
| + | |||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | $R_{\rm i} = R_1 \parallel R_2 = \frac{R_1 \cdot R_2}{R_1 + R_2}$ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | |||
| + | Using the measured values of resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$, calculate the internal resistance of the voltage source and determine the source voltage: | ||
| + | |||
| + | $R_{\rm i} =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | $U_0 =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | The power supplied by the bench power supply $P_0$ can be calculated using the following equation: | ||
| + | |||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | $P_0 = U \cdot I_1$ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | |||
| + | The power consumed by the load resistor can be determined using the following equation: | ||
| + | |||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | $P_{\rm L} = R_{\rm L} \cdot I_2^2$ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Voltage divider as a voltage source (b) ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Draw the equivalent voltage source of the voltage divider: | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | What value would $U_2$ have without $R_{\rm L}$? | ||
| + | $U_{2,0} =$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Calculate $U_{2{\rm L}}$ and $I_2$ for $R_{\rm L} = 10 ~{\rm k}\Omega$ using the values of the equivalent voltage source. State the formulae used. | ||
| + | |||
| + | $U_{2{\rm L}}:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | $I_2:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Verify the values by measurement: | ||
| + | |||
| + | $U_{2{\rm L},meas}:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | $I_{2,{\rm meas}}:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Verify the values using Kirchhoff' | ||
| + | |||
| + | $U_{2{\rm L}}:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | $I_2:$ <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==== Non-linear resistors ==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | All resistors investigated so far are linear resistors, for which the characteristic $I = f(U)$ is a straight line. See Figure 7. The resistance value of a linear resistor is independent of the current $I$ flowing through it or of the applied voltage $U$. | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | For non-linear resistors there is no proportionality between current and voltage. The characteristic of such a resistor is shown in Figure 8. For these resistors one speaks of the static resistance $R$ and the dynamic (or differential) resistance $r$. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The static resistance is determined for a particular operating point: at a given voltage, the current is read from the resistance characteristic. The calculation is carried out according to Ohm's law: | ||
| + | |||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | $R = \frac{U}{I}$ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | |||
| + | The differential resistance around the operating point is calculated from the current difference caused by a change in the applied voltage: | ||
| + | |||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | $r = \frac{\Delta U}{\Delta I}$ | ||
| + | \\ | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | As an example of a non-linear resistor, an incandescent lamp is investigated. Build the measurement circuit shown in Figure 9. | ||
| + | |||
| + | {{drawio> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Set the bench power supply to the voltage values from Table 7. Measure the corresponding current values and enter them in Table 7. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ^ $U / {\rm V}$ ^ 0.5 ^ 1.0 ^ 2.0 ^ 3.0 ^ 4.0 ^ 5.0 ^ 6.0 ^ 7.0 ^ 8.0 ^ | ||
| + | | $I / {\rm mA}$ | | | | | | | | | | | ||
| + | |||
| + | Plot the characteristic $I = f(U)$. | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Calculate the static resistance $R$ at the operating point $U = 7.0 ~{\rm V}$. | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Calculate the dynamic resistance $r$ at the operating point $U = 7.0 ~{\rm V}$. | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||
| + | |||
| + | Compare the values with those from Section 1.2 (direct resistance measurement). | ||
| + | <wrap onlyprint> | ||